THE ZOMI AND THEIR COUNTRY
The Zomi Tribes : Southern Zomi
The Southern Zomi includes the Asho, the people of Kanpetlet, Patletwa and Matupi areas such as Chinbok, Chinme, Chinbon, Khumi, Khami, Mro, and Matu. The Asho (or the plains’ Chin) are found to have been geographically concentrated in such locations as Thayetmo, Insein, Minbu, Prome, Aunglam, Akyab, Sandoway, Syrian and Cape of Morton in the plains of Burma. Among the Southern Zomi, the Khyang and Chaungtha in Paletwa district of the Chin State have old relationships with the Arakan, like that of the Old Kuki to Manipur and Tripura.
The Zomi Tribes : Central Zomi
The Central Zomi includes the Falams, the Hakas, the Thantlang, the Maras (Lakhers), the Lushei, the Hmars, the Zahaus, the Hualngou, the Khuanglis, the Tlasun, the Laizou, the Bawmzou, the Zoukhuas, the Tawrs, the Zoutung, the Ngentes, the Kneltes, the Fanais, etc. They are found to have been geographically concentrated in such locations as Northern Arakan District, the Pokokku Hills, the Central portion of Chin State (all in Burma), Mizoram, Tripura Hills and the Chittagong Hill Tracts of Bangladesh. The old Kuki groups of the anthropological and linguistic literatures like Bete (Biate), Halam, Chote (Purum), Hrangkhol, Ngente, Aimol, Kom, Anal, Chiru, Mayon, Monsang, Koireng, Tarau, etc. also belong to the Central Zomi tribes whereas the Vaiphei and the Gangte belong to the Northern group.
The Zomi Tribes : Northern Zomi
The Northern Zomi constitutes the Galte (Ralte), Gangte, Paite, Sihzang, Simte, Tedim, Vaiphei, Thadou, Zoute, etc. They are found to have been geographically concentrated in such locations as the Tonzang district, the Tedim district (both in Burma), the north-east of Mizoram, the Naga Hills, the Somra Tracts, the Hkamti district, the Kale-Kabaw valley and the North Cachar Hills and Karbi Anglong districts of Assam. The Northern Zomi’s socio-cultural system is basically complex but despite important structural distinctions, they have closer affinity to the Central Zomi, rather than to the Southern tribes.
In Manipur, as many as 21 tribes are listed as Scheduled tribes in the 1956 Tribe Reorganisation viz, Aimol, Anal, Chiru, Chothe, Gangte, Hmar, Koireng, Kom, Lamkang, Maring, Mizo, Monsang, Moyon, Paite, Purum, Ralte, Simte, Suihte (Sukte), Thadou, Vaiphei, Zo. Even at present, the Mate, Kharam, Chongthu, Tarao and the Enpai are applying for recognition as a tribe in Manipur. All these tribes, inspite of minor dialectical differences, belongs to the same linguistic family, sharing common customs, culture, folktales, folksongs, passing through similar historical process, are descendents of common ancestor, Zo and inhabiting contiguous areas.
It may be noted that the Anal, Lamkang, Maring, Monsang and Moyon tribes in Manipur are ethnologically and historically the Zo descendants, however politically they are inclined to calling themselves Naga due to weak centripetal political movement among the Zomi in the past.
The Zomi tribes inhabiting the Tripura state of India are the Molsom, Langrong, Chongrai, Bong, Kaipeng, Hrangkhawl, Ruankhum, Darlong, Lushei, Rangchan, Paite/Paitu, Namte, Mizel, Lantei, Laifang, Fun, Khephong, Khareng, Balte, Jantei, and Hajango.
In Bangladesh, about seven Zo tribes can be identified viz; the Bawmzo, Asho, Khami or Khumi, Kuki, Lushei, Mosho and Pankhu.
Almost all the tribes inhabiting the Chin State in Burma and Mizoram state in India belong to Zo racial groups.
Ethnologically, the above named tribes belong to Zomi group because their progenitor is Zo. The close ethnicity is proved by the peculiarity that though variations in dialects exist, the Zomi - unlike other tribes - can converse with one another in their respective dialects with 70% comprehension. Thus the chain of their relationship is circumscribed not only by geographical bounds, but more often by racial unity.
A more detailed study into Zomi languages was made in 1931 and 44 (forty four) separate dialects were recorded as belonging to Kuki-Chin (Zomi) group.
As per the memorandum submitted to the British Government on April 22, 1947 by the Mizo Union, 47 (forty seven) major Zomi tribes were included, viz Aimol, Anal, Bawng, Baite, Bawngzo, Chiru, Chawhte, Chawrai, Chongthu, Chongthu, Darlawng, Dawn, Fanai, Hmar, Hrangkhawl, Hnamte, Kaihpen, Khumi, Khiang, Khiangte, Khawlhring, Kawm, Lushei, Lakher, Langrong, Mualthum, Miria, Ngente, Paite, Pawi, Purum, Pangkhua, Pangte, Pante, Pawite, Ralte, Renthlei, Thadou, Tarau, Tikhup, Tloanglau, Tlau, Vangchhia, Vaiphei, Zoute, Zawngte and Gangte.
Monday, September 10, 2007
Archaeological Remains
Archaeological Remains
Archaeological evidences also have clearly pointed out the settlement of the Zomi in the plains of Burma. In 1971, S.B. Khamtinzamvungh had discovered beads from necklace, remnants of copper belts, and pieces of smoking pipes, made of copper, etc. from Sabani village in the present Sagang Division of Burma. All these articles are quite identical with the articles used by the Zomi. From this finding, it can also be deduced that the Zomi had their settlement in the plain areas of Burma.
Evidence of ancient manufacture of beads of fossilized wood called Chin Padi or Zomi beads which were discovered in 1904 near the pale-walled city of Wate, suggests that there were trends of communication between the Zomi and the Pagan Burmans.
The Burmese too recognized the settlement of Zomi in the plain areas. Some sort of social intercourse developed between the Zomi and the Burmese. King Alaungpaya of Ava (1044-1287 AD) even established a separate army of Zomis and called the areas where the Zomi had made their settlements as Zou country or Yaw country. Yaw was derived from Zo.
Archaeological evidences also have clearly pointed out the settlement of the Zomi in the plains of Burma. In 1971, S.B. Khamtinzamvungh had discovered beads from necklace, remnants of copper belts, and pieces of smoking pipes, made of copper, etc. from Sabani village in the present Sagang Division of Burma. All these articles are quite identical with the articles used by the Zomi. From this finding, it can also be deduced that the Zomi had their settlement in the plain areas of Burma.
Evidence of ancient manufacture of beads of fossilized wood called Chin Padi or Zomi beads which were discovered in 1904 near the pale-walled city of Wate, suggests that there were trends of communication between the Zomi and the Pagan Burmans.
The Burmese too recognized the settlement of Zomi in the plain areas. Some sort of social intercourse developed between the Zomi and the Burmese. King Alaungpaya of Ava (1044-1287 AD) even established a separate army of Zomis and called the areas where the Zomi had made their settlements as Zou country or Yaw country. Yaw was derived from Zo.
Traditional Political System of Zomi
Traditional Political System
The Zomi had efficient system of administration and discipline as a distinct group governed by their traditional laws, customs and organizations. The traditional political system is based on kinship structure that revolves round the concept of chieftainship and that of territorial jurisdiction over which its authority is wielded, and that the village is the highest political unit. Each village had its own government, and a chief or a headman functioned as administrator for the village. Generally, the duty and power of the Chief or village headman was similar among all Zomi tribes.
The village Chief, locally called ‘Lal’ or ‘Hausa/Haosa’ or ‘Uk’, enjoyed hereditary rights and exercised political, judicial, legislative and executive powers. He controlled, to varying degrees, the daily lives of the people. He enjoyed the rights to order death penalty or give pardon; right over lands, right to seize property of the villagers, right to tax traders, etc. Some of his privileges include – six tins-full of paddy from every household, the left fore-leg of any animal killed (called ‘Buhsun-Saliang’), one-tenth of the amount of salt collected, share of wild honey collected, share of fish caught, free labour in constructing his house, etc. Such is the power and privileges of the Chief that they are called “the Lord of the Soil” by the British. Carey and Tuck wrote thus:
“The position of the Chief in regard to the people is very similar to that of a Feudal Baron. The Chief is ‘Lord of the Soil’ and his freemen hold it as his tenants and pay him tithes, and he accepts tribute.”
As the Chief was the Lord of the Soil, he enjoyed absolute power; however his functioning is more democratic than autocratic in form. In his manifold functions and responsibilities as a ruler, the Chief was assisted by a Council of Elders, known in Zomi as ‘Khawnbawl Upa’ or ‘Upa’, the number of which was determined by the number of houses in the village. It was the collective responsibilities of the ‘Upa’ to protect the life and property of the villages, to frame the general policy of making allotment of village lands for cultivation; and to administer justice according to the customary laws. Moreover, the villagers had a liberty to leave any autocratic Chief and migrate to another village. This acted as a ‘check and balance’ on the Chief and his Councils who were bound by customary laws. Therefore, the office of Chieftainship has its power based on the proper interpretation of the customary law and enforcement of culture and tradition through the Chief. Apart from the Village Council there are Siampu (Priest), Tangkou/Tlangau, Siiksek (blacksmith), etc who assisted the Chief in his administration and functioning.
Zomi Chieftainship was hereditary. From clan to clan the custom differed as to whether the youngest or eldest son inherited the office of the father. The chief’s sons, other than the one who inherits his father’s chieftainship, on attaining marriageable age were assigned another village in which he exercised independent authority, but paid tribute to the parent village. Each clan has a hierarchical order of Chieftainship with the senior-most linear chief as head of the Chiefs among a particular clan. This shows that Chieftainship among the Zomi has a broad-based federal structure. A good example can be seen in Falam area. At the time the British conquered the Zomi, Falam had developed itself into the most powerful of Chieftainships in Zo country. They had done this through development of a political organization comparable to democratic types of government found in the western world. The people enjoyed equal rights and freedom, and even Chiefship was open to all. Carey and Tuck remarks as,
“Unity in strength is a Falam motto, and therefore every quarter of the village is represented in discussion on all matters connected with the tribe and village.”
When Zoland came under British control, the Zomi Chieftainships were recognized, and the British did not interfere with the Chiefs’ powers and functions. Village organization and local authorities were left as they were. Today the institution of Chieftainship continues to exist with all its rights and privileges in the hill areas of Manipur whereas it was replaced by Village Council with nominal Chiefship in Mizoram and Chin State.
Beside Chieftainship, there were other common bonds and practices in Zomi society. In fact, the Zomi have always practiced a form of socialism within their communities. This form of unique socialism is called ‘Tlawmngaihna’ in Lushai dialect, which means ‘love of less’. It implies the capacity for hard work, bravery, endurance, generosity, kindness and selflessness. Zomi forefathers emphasized this value of action to their progeny and today it continues in the form of ‘philanthropic organisations’ e.g. Hmar Youth Association, Kuki Khanglai Lawmpi, Young Mizo Association, Zomi Youth Association, … The spirit of philanthropism existed among the Zomi, even before it was christened into an organisation/association, in the form of ‘Zawlbuk/Haam’ where all bachelors in the village spent the night in a particular place. This unique institution is as old as the village itself.
The Zomi had efficient system of administration and discipline as a distinct group governed by their traditional laws, customs and organizations. The traditional political system is based on kinship structure that revolves round the concept of chieftainship and that of territorial jurisdiction over which its authority is wielded, and that the village is the highest political unit. Each village had its own government, and a chief or a headman functioned as administrator for the village. Generally, the duty and power of the Chief or village headman was similar among all Zomi tribes.
The village Chief, locally called ‘Lal’ or ‘Hausa/Haosa’ or ‘Uk’, enjoyed hereditary rights and exercised political, judicial, legislative and executive powers. He controlled, to varying degrees, the daily lives of the people. He enjoyed the rights to order death penalty or give pardon; right over lands, right to seize property of the villagers, right to tax traders, etc. Some of his privileges include – six tins-full of paddy from every household, the left fore-leg of any animal killed (called ‘Buhsun-Saliang’), one-tenth of the amount of salt collected, share of wild honey collected, share of fish caught, free labour in constructing his house, etc. Such is the power and privileges of the Chief that they are called “the Lord of the Soil” by the British. Carey and Tuck wrote thus:
“The position of the Chief in regard to the people is very similar to that of a Feudal Baron. The Chief is ‘Lord of the Soil’ and his freemen hold it as his tenants and pay him tithes, and he accepts tribute.”
As the Chief was the Lord of the Soil, he enjoyed absolute power; however his functioning is more democratic than autocratic in form. In his manifold functions and responsibilities as a ruler, the Chief was assisted by a Council of Elders, known in Zomi as ‘Khawnbawl Upa’ or ‘Upa’, the number of which was determined by the number of houses in the village. It was the collective responsibilities of the ‘Upa’ to protect the life and property of the villages, to frame the general policy of making allotment of village lands for cultivation; and to administer justice according to the customary laws. Moreover, the villagers had a liberty to leave any autocratic Chief and migrate to another village. This acted as a ‘check and balance’ on the Chief and his Councils who were bound by customary laws. Therefore, the office of Chieftainship has its power based on the proper interpretation of the customary law and enforcement of culture and tradition through the Chief. Apart from the Village Council there are Siampu (Priest), Tangkou/Tlangau, Siiksek (blacksmith), etc who assisted the Chief in his administration and functioning.
Zomi Chieftainship was hereditary. From clan to clan the custom differed as to whether the youngest or eldest son inherited the office of the father. The chief’s sons, other than the one who inherits his father’s chieftainship, on attaining marriageable age were assigned another village in which he exercised independent authority, but paid tribute to the parent village. Each clan has a hierarchical order of Chieftainship with the senior-most linear chief as head of the Chiefs among a particular clan. This shows that Chieftainship among the Zomi has a broad-based federal structure. A good example can be seen in Falam area. At the time the British conquered the Zomi, Falam had developed itself into the most powerful of Chieftainships in Zo country. They had done this through development of a political organization comparable to democratic types of government found in the western world. The people enjoyed equal rights and freedom, and even Chiefship was open to all. Carey and Tuck remarks as,
“Unity in strength is a Falam motto, and therefore every quarter of the village is represented in discussion on all matters connected with the tribe and village.”
When Zoland came under British control, the Zomi Chieftainships were recognized, and the British did not interfere with the Chiefs’ powers and functions. Village organization and local authorities were left as they were. Today the institution of Chieftainship continues to exist with all its rights and privileges in the hill areas of Manipur whereas it was replaced by Village Council with nominal Chiefship in Mizoram and Chin State.
Beside Chieftainship, there were other common bonds and practices in Zomi society. In fact, the Zomi have always practiced a form of socialism within their communities. This form of unique socialism is called ‘Tlawmngaihna’ in Lushai dialect, which means ‘love of less’. It implies the capacity for hard work, bravery, endurance, generosity, kindness and selflessness. Zomi forefathers emphasized this value of action to their progeny and today it continues in the form of ‘philanthropic organisations’ e.g. Hmar Youth Association, Kuki Khanglai Lawmpi, Young Mizo Association, Zomi Youth Association, … The spirit of philanthropism existed among the Zomi, even before it was christened into an organisation/association, in the form of ‘Zawlbuk/Haam’ where all bachelors in the village spent the night in a particular place. This unique institution is as old as the village itself.
Early History & Migration of Zomi
Early History & Migration
The early history of the Zomi is obscure, shrouded in myths and legends. In the absence of written documents, it is extremely difficult to trace their early history. However, through historical, linguistics, archaeological findings, and ethnic relationships, it is now accepted that they belong to the Tibeto-Burman. Thus their movements can only be studied and identified in terms of the general movements of the Tibeto-Burman tribes. Like the other tribes of the Indo-Burma frontier areas, the Zomi too could have originated from China.
The area which lies between the upper course of the Yangtze Kiang and the Hwang Ho Rivers are believed to be the original home of these people. S. K. Chatterji also makes an attempt to identify the area of the “North-West China, between the head waters of the Hwang Ho and the Yangtze Kiang Rivers” as the origin of the Sino-Tibetan migration into India and Burma. Dr. Grierson wrote “…tradition and comparative physiology agree in pointing to North-Western China between the upper course of the Yangtze Kiang and of the Hwang Ho as the original home of the Tibeto-China race, to which the Tibeto-Burman and the Siamese-Chinese groups belong”. Though acceptable because of lack of any other plausible explanation, the original home of the Zomi remain indeterminate. But still it is quite obscure to know when and how they were originated from this place.
It is claimed that the Zomi is one of the oldest groups of people who settled in Burma. Regarding the pattern of their historical movements, the theory advanced by F. K. Lehman quoted below is worthwhile to note –
“Ethnic and linguistic differentiation certainly existed at an early period. The ancestor of the Chin and of the Burmans must have been distinct from each other even before they first appeared in Burma. Undoubtedly, these various ancestral groups were descended in part from groups immigrating into Burma, starting about the Christian era. But it is also probable that some of these groups were in Burma in the remote past, long before the date indicated by any present historical evidence”.
There is, however, no doubt that the Zomi had entered into Burma in different waves along with other groups of people. This argument is supported by folklores, oral tradition and legends. They came into this region by different routes. Some groups had gone up into the Tibetan plateau to the north while other groups moved into Burma in three waves. The First people who migrated from China were the Mon-Khmer races, and the second wave was that of the Tibeto-Burman races which consist of the Zomi, the Burmese, Lolo, Kachin, etc. The third wave was that of the Tai-Chinese consisting of Shan, Siamese, Karen, etc. The Mon-Khmer group moved first from Central Asia and entered into the Indo-Chinese peninsula. They mainly moved southwards following the Mekong Valley as far south as into Kampuchea and Thailand, whence by a lateral westward movement they reached Burma.
The Tibeto-Burman wave, which includes the Zomi, moved south-westward, on the line of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin (Tuikang) and disbursed along the mountainous regions of the Indo-Burma areas and of Burma on its western side. Regarding the north southward migrations, Prof. F. K. Lehman wrote:
"Historical linguistics, archaeology, and racial relationships definitely indicate the ancestors of these various peoples did indeed come from the North… history shows, however, that both hills and plain peoples have moved about within the general region of South-West China and Southeast Asia over considerable distances for many centuries until recent past”.
With regard to the Zomi, it is mentioned that they had migrated from the north to the southern valley areas of the Chindwin River, and then stopped by the Bay of Bengal before turning to the north again. Carey and Tuck are also of the same opinion. And when they reached the plains of Burma they were divided into several groups. One group moved towards the areas lying between the Chindwin and Irrawaddy rivers. The other groups moved towards the south and the west of Chindwin via Hukawang valley, Zou country and Arakan before 1000 A.D. the last immigrants were perhaps the Lushei and Hmar ancestors who, according to Pu K. Zawla, came to the Chindwin belt around 996 A.D. According to their local tradition, the first known settlement of the Hmar tribes was the Shan Village (Shan Khua) where they came in contact with the Shans as borne out by folk songs like the one quoted below:
“Ka pa lam thak a tha’n dang,
Sinlung lam thak aw a tha’n dang;
Shan khua ah thapo in vang…..
(My father’s step were remarkably good,
Sinlung’s steps were remarkably good;
Tens are the good men in Shan village….)
According to legendary sources, right from the early historical period the Zomi made their settlement in the Irrawaddy and the Chindwin valleys. After their kingdom was destroyed by the Chinese, they crossed the Chindwin and settled in the area of Kale-Kabaw-Myitha-Yaw Valleys and Panduang Hills. They made a permanent settlement in the valley areas of the river which they called ‘Tuikang’ – white water. But later the Burmese called the river ‘Chindwin’ (Cin/Chin=Burmese name for Zomi; Dwin = valley or region) and the name stuck through British acceptance.
Another theory based on folktales and legends claim that the Zomi had founded a kingdom called “Pugam” and its capital was Pagan. According to Chinese writers, this kingdom was situated between two and three hundred li (1 li = ½ kilometer) to the south-west of Yung-Chiang, a border state of China, on the north and northeast Nanchao (Thai) states of Upper Burma and Northern Siam; on the north and north-east of the Cheula (Kamboja), and to the east the seas (Gulf of Marteban) to the south (Cambodia). The Burmese and Chinese called this place “Piao-khua”.
It is said that the Zomi ancestors had settled there since 484 B.C. Fan Ch’o, a historian-turned-diplomat of the Tang dynasty, who was the author of “Man-Shu” (Story of Nanchao), 863 A.D. had identified the Chindwin river as “Mi-no-Chiang” (Chiang means River). He also mentioned the existence of three kingdoms in the ninth century A. D. They were Mino, Min-Ch’en and P’iao. Prof. Luce tried to identify the “Mi-Ch’en” (Zomi) as the ‘Man Kingdom of Kyontu’, a Burmese area situated near Waw qt, the old mouth of Pegu river, about 20 miles northeast of Pegu and P’iao with the Pyu or Pu Kingdom at Halin town in Shwabo area in Burma. Regarding Mino, it was, with Zo kingdom, situated near the Chindwin River. As Sir J. C. Scott remarks,
“Probably they (the Zomi) may be taken to be a presentiment of the Pagan Burman before he acquired Buddhism. It is also undisputed that the Thet or Sak, of Thara Keltara, who moved from to found and start the Burmese race as we know, are a Chin clan”.
The Asho Zomi tradition says that the original name of Pagan was “Pugam” which literally means country or Kingdom of our ancestors. (Pu=ancestors/forefathers; gam= kingdom/country). But, unfortunately, it has come to be written as “Pugan” in Burmese. Yet “Pugam”, “Pugan” and “Pagan” are not Burmese words. They are Zomi words. Moreover, Mount Popa also is simply “Pupa Mual”, a word or term absent in the Burmese vocabulary. This undeniable fact has been approved as true by the Burmese Socialist Programme Party Research office, Rangoon. Apart from this tradition, the Zomi of Yaw country in the Pakokku District also claims that they had come from Pupa (Popa) hills.
The Zomi folksongs give the picture of their settlement, prosperity and the civilization that evolved in the plains of Burma until the hand of Tartars (Mongols) struck them in the last part of the 13th century A.D. Dr. Francis Mason also mentioned that the Zomi had established an independent state in the Upper Chindwin areas. The observation about the establishment of a kingdom is clearly evident by the terms “Kumpi”, “Mang”, and “Leng” which are equivalent to Kingship.
However, their prosperity did not last long. They were destroyed by the Mongols. Lt. Trant wrote:
“The interlopers disposed their king and put many of their chieftains to death; they obligated the others to seek for refuge in flight…with them went some members of the royal family, but in course of time, and from deaths and changes of residence, all traces of them were lost and they know not whether any of the royal blood exists or not”.
The early history of the Zomi is obscure, shrouded in myths and legends. In the absence of written documents, it is extremely difficult to trace their early history. However, through historical, linguistics, archaeological findings, and ethnic relationships, it is now accepted that they belong to the Tibeto-Burman. Thus their movements can only be studied and identified in terms of the general movements of the Tibeto-Burman tribes. Like the other tribes of the Indo-Burma frontier areas, the Zomi too could have originated from China.
The area which lies between the upper course of the Yangtze Kiang and the Hwang Ho Rivers are believed to be the original home of these people. S. K. Chatterji also makes an attempt to identify the area of the “North-West China, between the head waters of the Hwang Ho and the Yangtze Kiang Rivers” as the origin of the Sino-Tibetan migration into India and Burma. Dr. Grierson wrote “…tradition and comparative physiology agree in pointing to North-Western China between the upper course of the Yangtze Kiang and of the Hwang Ho as the original home of the Tibeto-China race, to which the Tibeto-Burman and the Siamese-Chinese groups belong”. Though acceptable because of lack of any other plausible explanation, the original home of the Zomi remain indeterminate. But still it is quite obscure to know when and how they were originated from this place.
It is claimed that the Zomi is one of the oldest groups of people who settled in Burma. Regarding the pattern of their historical movements, the theory advanced by F. K. Lehman quoted below is worthwhile to note –
“Ethnic and linguistic differentiation certainly existed at an early period. The ancestor of the Chin and of the Burmans must have been distinct from each other even before they first appeared in Burma. Undoubtedly, these various ancestral groups were descended in part from groups immigrating into Burma, starting about the Christian era. But it is also probable that some of these groups were in Burma in the remote past, long before the date indicated by any present historical evidence”.
There is, however, no doubt that the Zomi had entered into Burma in different waves along with other groups of people. This argument is supported by folklores, oral tradition and legends. They came into this region by different routes. Some groups had gone up into the Tibetan plateau to the north while other groups moved into Burma in three waves. The First people who migrated from China were the Mon-Khmer races, and the second wave was that of the Tibeto-Burman races which consist of the Zomi, the Burmese, Lolo, Kachin, etc. The third wave was that of the Tai-Chinese consisting of Shan, Siamese, Karen, etc. The Mon-Khmer group moved first from Central Asia and entered into the Indo-Chinese peninsula. They mainly moved southwards following the Mekong Valley as far south as into Kampuchea and Thailand, whence by a lateral westward movement they reached Burma.
The Tibeto-Burman wave, which includes the Zomi, moved south-westward, on the line of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin (Tuikang) and disbursed along the mountainous regions of the Indo-Burma areas and of Burma on its western side. Regarding the north southward migrations, Prof. F. K. Lehman wrote:
"Historical linguistics, archaeology, and racial relationships definitely indicate the ancestors of these various peoples did indeed come from the North… history shows, however, that both hills and plain peoples have moved about within the general region of South-West China and Southeast Asia over considerable distances for many centuries until recent past”.
With regard to the Zomi, it is mentioned that they had migrated from the north to the southern valley areas of the Chindwin River, and then stopped by the Bay of Bengal before turning to the north again. Carey and Tuck are also of the same opinion. And when they reached the plains of Burma they were divided into several groups. One group moved towards the areas lying between the Chindwin and Irrawaddy rivers. The other groups moved towards the south and the west of Chindwin via Hukawang valley, Zou country and Arakan before 1000 A.D. the last immigrants were perhaps the Lushei and Hmar ancestors who, according to Pu K. Zawla, came to the Chindwin belt around 996 A.D. According to their local tradition, the first known settlement of the Hmar tribes was the Shan Village (Shan Khua) where they came in contact with the Shans as borne out by folk songs like the one quoted below:
“Ka pa lam thak a tha’n dang,
Sinlung lam thak aw a tha’n dang;
Shan khua ah thapo in vang…..
(My father’s step were remarkably good,
Sinlung’s steps were remarkably good;
Tens are the good men in Shan village….)
According to legendary sources, right from the early historical period the Zomi made their settlement in the Irrawaddy and the Chindwin valleys. After their kingdom was destroyed by the Chinese, they crossed the Chindwin and settled in the area of Kale-Kabaw-Myitha-Yaw Valleys and Panduang Hills. They made a permanent settlement in the valley areas of the river which they called ‘Tuikang’ – white water. But later the Burmese called the river ‘Chindwin’ (Cin/Chin=Burmese name for Zomi; Dwin = valley or region) and the name stuck through British acceptance.
Another theory based on folktales and legends claim that the Zomi had founded a kingdom called “Pugam” and its capital was Pagan. According to Chinese writers, this kingdom was situated between two and three hundred li (1 li = ½ kilometer) to the south-west of Yung-Chiang, a border state of China, on the north and northeast Nanchao (Thai) states of Upper Burma and Northern Siam; on the north and north-east of the Cheula (Kamboja), and to the east the seas (Gulf of Marteban) to the south (Cambodia). The Burmese and Chinese called this place “Piao-khua”.
It is said that the Zomi ancestors had settled there since 484 B.C. Fan Ch’o, a historian-turned-diplomat of the Tang dynasty, who was the author of “Man-Shu” (Story of Nanchao), 863 A.D. had identified the Chindwin river as “Mi-no-Chiang” (Chiang means River). He also mentioned the existence of three kingdoms in the ninth century A. D. They were Mino, Min-Ch’en and P’iao. Prof. Luce tried to identify the “Mi-Ch’en” (Zomi) as the ‘Man Kingdom of Kyontu’, a Burmese area situated near Waw qt, the old mouth of Pegu river, about 20 miles northeast of Pegu and P’iao with the Pyu or Pu Kingdom at Halin town in Shwabo area in Burma. Regarding Mino, it was, with Zo kingdom, situated near the Chindwin River. As Sir J. C. Scott remarks,
“Probably they (the Zomi) may be taken to be a presentiment of the Pagan Burman before he acquired Buddhism. It is also undisputed that the Thet or Sak, of Thara Keltara, who moved from to found and start the Burmese race as we know, are a Chin clan”.
The Asho Zomi tradition says that the original name of Pagan was “Pugam” which literally means country or Kingdom of our ancestors. (Pu=ancestors/forefathers; gam= kingdom/country). But, unfortunately, it has come to be written as “Pugan” in Burmese. Yet “Pugam”, “Pugan” and “Pagan” are not Burmese words. They are Zomi words. Moreover, Mount Popa also is simply “Pupa Mual”, a word or term absent in the Burmese vocabulary. This undeniable fact has been approved as true by the Burmese Socialist Programme Party Research office, Rangoon. Apart from this tradition, the Zomi of Yaw country in the Pakokku District also claims that they had come from Pupa (Popa) hills.
The Zomi folksongs give the picture of their settlement, prosperity and the civilization that evolved in the plains of Burma until the hand of Tartars (Mongols) struck them in the last part of the 13th century A.D. Dr. Francis Mason also mentioned that the Zomi had established an independent state in the Upper Chindwin areas. The observation about the establishment of a kingdom is clearly evident by the terms “Kumpi”, “Mang”, and “Leng” which are equivalent to Kingship.
However, their prosperity did not last long. They were destroyed by the Mongols. Lt. Trant wrote:
“The interlopers disposed their king and put many of their chieftains to death; they obligated the others to seek for refuge in flight…with them went some members of the royal family, but in course of time, and from deaths and changes of residence, all traces of them were lost and they know not whether any of the royal blood exists or not”.
HISTORY: Who are the Zomi?
HISTORY
Who are the Zomi?
The term 'Zomi' meaning, 'Zo People' is derived from the generic name 'Zo', the progenitor of the Zomi. In the past they were little known by this racial nomenclature. They were known by the non-tribal plain peoples of Burma, Bangladesh and India as Chin, Kuki, or Lushai. Subsequently the British employed these terms to christen those 'wild hill tribes' living in the 'un-administered area', and was subsequently legalised to be the names for the newly adopted subjects by Queen Victoria of England. However, they called themselves Zomi since time immemorial. They are Zomi not because they live in the highlands or hills, but are Zomi and called themselves Zomi because they are the descendants of their great great ancestor, 'Zo'.
In this regards, F.K. Lehman, Professor of Anthropology and Linguistics, University of Illinois (USA), who had done extensive study on the Chin of Burma, said:
'No single Chin word has explicit reference to all the peoples we customarily call Chin, but all - or nearly all of the peoples have a special word for themselves and those of their congeners with whom they are in regular contact. This word is almost always a variant form of a single root, which appears as Zo, Yo, Ysou, Shou and the like.'
Relating to this generic name, Fan-Cho a diplomat of the Tang dynasty of China, mentioned in 862 AD a Kingdom in the Chindwin Valley 'whose Princes and Chiefs were called Shou (Zo)' . In 1783, Father Vincentius Sangermano in his book, 'A Description of the Burmese Empire' described them as, "a petty nation called JO (JAW)" Sir Henry Yule, as early as 1508 mentioned about the YO country the location of which was "west of the mouth of the Kyen-dwen (Chindwin) the interior of Doab, between the Irrawaddy and the Chindwin, from Mout-Shabo upwards and the whole of the hill country east and north-east of the capital, towards the Ruby-mines, the upper course of Hyitnge, and the Chinese frontier" . Rev. Howard Malcolm also testified thus, "The YAW (ZO) is on the lower waters of the Khyendiwen (Chindwin) not far from Ava. The district is sometimes called YO or JO".
Another early use of the name ZO with reference to the Zomi (Kuki-Chin-Lushai), the first on the Lushai Hills side which till then was a terra incognito, was by Col. T.H. Lewin, the first white man to know the inhabitants of Lushai Hills (Mizoram). He wrote that he came to know, during the Lushai Expedition of 1871-72 that, 'the generic name of the whole nation is Dzo' Dr. Francis Buchanan also wrote of Zomi and Zomi language , while Captain Pemberton mentioned Zo or Jo in his 'Reports on the Eastern Frontiers of British India, 1835'. The fact that the Zomi were known as ZOU or YO or YAW, before their society evolved into clan based organisation and lineage segmentation, was pointed out by Dr. G.A. Grierson in his survey, thus,
'The name (Kuki and Chin) is not used by the tribes themselves, who use titles such as ZOU or YO or CHO'.
Rev Sukte T. Hau Go, a former lecturer of Mandalay University (Burma) also shared the same view,
"Zomi is the correct original historical name of our people, from the Naga hill to the Bay of Bengal. To the north of Tedim, the Thadous and other tribes call themselves Yo; in Falam, Laizo. The Tedim people call themselves Zo; the Lushais, Mizo; in Haka, Zotung, Zophei, Zokhua. In Gangaw area Zo is pronounced as YAW, in Mindat Jo or CHO; and in Paletwa Khomi. In Prome, Thayetmyo, Sandoway and Bassein areas they call themselves A-Sho. So, inspite of slight variations Zomi is our original historical national name ".
Regarding the truth of Zomi as the racial designation of the so-called Kuki-Chin people, U Thein Re Myint, a well known Burmese Writer, who knew Chin history, perhaps better than the Chin themselves remarks:
'Even though these tribes of people, who are called Chin, do not necessarily protest their name, their original name is, in fact, Zomi '.
Two British administrators, Bertram S. Carey and H.N. Tuck who place Zo people under modern system of administration record as thus:
'Those of the Kuki tribes which we designate as "Chins" do not recognise that name……they call themselves YO (ZO)…and YO (ZO) is the general name by which the Chins call their race'
Another European writer, Sir J. George Scott also claimed that, the Zomi never called themselves by such names as Kuki or Chin or Lushai. He wrote:
'The names like Kuki and Chin are not national, and have been given to them by their neighbours. Like others, the people do not accept the name given by the Burmese and ourselves; they do not call themselves Chins, and they equally flout the name of Kuki which their Assamese neighbours use. They call themselves Zhou or Shu and in other parts Yo or Lai.
It is, therefore, no wonder that Zomi use the term Zo, Zou, Zhou, Chou, Shou, Yo, Jo, Yaw, Shu, etc in their speech and poetic language as Zo-Vontawi, Zo-lei, Zogam or Zoram, Zo-tui, Zo-fa, etc; in naming geographical names such as Zotlang, Zopui, Zobawks; and in some of the clan names like Zophei, Zotung, Zokhua, Laizo, Bawmzo, Zote, etc. All these have a common derivation from the generic name, "ZO". It is also because of this fact that scholars like Dr. Vum Kho Hau, Prof. Laldena, Dr. Vum Son, Dr. Tualchin Neihsial, Dr. H. Kamkhenthang, Dr. Mangkhosat Kipgen, Cap. Sing Khaw Khai, Dr. J. M. Paupu, Pu K. Zawla, Pu R. Vanlawma, B. Langthanliana, Dr. V. Lunghnema, Dr. Hawlngam Haokip, Pu L. S. Gangte, Pu T. Gougin, Pu Thang Khan Gin Ngaihte, Rev. S. Prim Vaiphei, Rev. Khup Za Go, Pu L. Keivom, Rev. S. T. Hau Go, Dr. Khen Za Sian, Prof. Thang Za Tuan, Rev. Sing Ling etc. concluded that ZO is the ancestor of the Zo people (Zomi).
Who are the Zomi?
The term 'Zomi' meaning, 'Zo People' is derived from the generic name 'Zo', the progenitor of the Zomi. In the past they were little known by this racial nomenclature. They were known by the non-tribal plain peoples of Burma, Bangladesh and India as Chin, Kuki, or Lushai. Subsequently the British employed these terms to christen those 'wild hill tribes' living in the 'un-administered area', and was subsequently legalised to be the names for the newly adopted subjects by Queen Victoria of England. However, they called themselves Zomi since time immemorial. They are Zomi not because they live in the highlands or hills, but are Zomi and called themselves Zomi because they are the descendants of their great great ancestor, 'Zo'.
In this regards, F.K. Lehman, Professor of Anthropology and Linguistics, University of Illinois (USA), who had done extensive study on the Chin of Burma, said:
'No single Chin word has explicit reference to all the peoples we customarily call Chin, but all - or nearly all of the peoples have a special word for themselves and those of their congeners with whom they are in regular contact. This word is almost always a variant form of a single root, which appears as Zo, Yo, Ysou, Shou and the like.'
Relating to this generic name, Fan-Cho a diplomat of the Tang dynasty of China, mentioned in 862 AD a Kingdom in the Chindwin Valley 'whose Princes and Chiefs were called Shou (Zo)' . In 1783, Father Vincentius Sangermano in his book, 'A Description of the Burmese Empire' described them as, "a petty nation called JO (JAW)" Sir Henry Yule, as early as 1508 mentioned about the YO country the location of which was "west of the mouth of the Kyen-dwen (Chindwin) the interior of Doab, between the Irrawaddy and the Chindwin, from Mout-Shabo upwards and the whole of the hill country east and north-east of the capital, towards the Ruby-mines, the upper course of Hyitnge, and the Chinese frontier" . Rev. Howard Malcolm also testified thus, "The YAW (ZO) is on the lower waters of the Khyendiwen (Chindwin) not far from Ava. The district is sometimes called YO or JO".
Another early use of the name ZO with reference to the Zomi (Kuki-Chin-Lushai), the first on the Lushai Hills side which till then was a terra incognito, was by Col. T.H. Lewin, the first white man to know the inhabitants of Lushai Hills (Mizoram). He wrote that he came to know, during the Lushai Expedition of 1871-72 that, 'the generic name of the whole nation is Dzo' Dr. Francis Buchanan also wrote of Zomi and Zomi language , while Captain Pemberton mentioned Zo or Jo in his 'Reports on the Eastern Frontiers of British India, 1835'. The fact that the Zomi were known as ZOU or YO or YAW, before their society evolved into clan based organisation and lineage segmentation, was pointed out by Dr. G.A. Grierson in his survey, thus,
'The name (Kuki and Chin) is not used by the tribes themselves, who use titles such as ZOU or YO or CHO'.
Rev Sukte T. Hau Go, a former lecturer of Mandalay University (Burma) also shared the same view,
"Zomi is the correct original historical name of our people, from the Naga hill to the Bay of Bengal. To the north of Tedim, the Thadous and other tribes call themselves Yo; in Falam, Laizo. The Tedim people call themselves Zo; the Lushais, Mizo; in Haka, Zotung, Zophei, Zokhua. In Gangaw area Zo is pronounced as YAW, in Mindat Jo or CHO; and in Paletwa Khomi. In Prome, Thayetmyo, Sandoway and Bassein areas they call themselves A-Sho. So, inspite of slight variations Zomi is our original historical national name ".
Regarding the truth of Zomi as the racial designation of the so-called Kuki-Chin people, U Thein Re Myint, a well known Burmese Writer, who knew Chin history, perhaps better than the Chin themselves remarks:
'Even though these tribes of people, who are called Chin, do not necessarily protest their name, their original name is, in fact, Zomi '.
Two British administrators, Bertram S. Carey and H.N. Tuck who place Zo people under modern system of administration record as thus:
'Those of the Kuki tribes which we designate as "Chins" do not recognise that name……they call themselves YO (ZO)…and YO (ZO) is the general name by which the Chins call their race'
Another European writer, Sir J. George Scott also claimed that, the Zomi never called themselves by such names as Kuki or Chin or Lushai. He wrote:
'The names like Kuki and Chin are not national, and have been given to them by their neighbours. Like others, the people do not accept the name given by the Burmese and ourselves; they do not call themselves Chins, and they equally flout the name of Kuki which their Assamese neighbours use. They call themselves Zhou or Shu and in other parts Yo or Lai.
It is, therefore, no wonder that Zomi use the term Zo, Zou, Zhou, Chou, Shou, Yo, Jo, Yaw, Shu, etc in their speech and poetic language as Zo-Vontawi, Zo-lei, Zogam or Zoram, Zo-tui, Zo-fa, etc; in naming geographical names such as Zotlang, Zopui, Zobawks; and in some of the clan names like Zophei, Zotung, Zokhua, Laizo, Bawmzo, Zote, etc. All these have a common derivation from the generic name, "ZO". It is also because of this fact that scholars like Dr. Vum Kho Hau, Prof. Laldena, Dr. Vum Son, Dr. Tualchin Neihsial, Dr. H. Kamkhenthang, Dr. Mangkhosat Kipgen, Cap. Sing Khaw Khai, Dr. J. M. Paupu, Pu K. Zawla, Pu R. Vanlawma, B. Langthanliana, Dr. V. Lunghnema, Dr. Hawlngam Haokip, Pu L. S. Gangte, Pu T. Gougin, Pu Thang Khan Gin Ngaihte, Rev. S. Prim Vaiphei, Rev. Khup Za Go, Pu L. Keivom, Rev. S. T. Hau Go, Dr. Khen Za Sian, Prof. Thang Za Tuan, Rev. Sing Ling etc. concluded that ZO is the ancestor of the Zo people (Zomi).
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